JNNURM and Urban Mobility

JNNURM and Urban Mobility

A momentum that rebuilds our cities and reforms the way the Urban Local Bodies are governed, a commitment to the development and expansion of physical infrastructure, Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), a first of its kind programme was launched on December 3, 2005.

JNNURM ObjectivesThe objectives of the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission is to ensure:
 Focused attention to integrated development of infrastructural services in the cities covered under the Mission;
 Secure effective linkages between asset creation and asset management so that the infrastructural services created in the cities are not only maintained efficiency but also become self-sustaining over time;
 Ensure adequate investment of funds to fulfill deficiencies in the urban infrastructural services;
 Planned development of identified cities including peri-urban areas, out growths, urban corridors, so that urbanization takes place in a dispersed manner;
 Scale up delivery of civic amenities and provision of utilities with emphasis on universal access to urban poor and
 To take up urban renewal programme, i.e. re-development of inner (old) cities area to reduce congestion.

Sub-MissionsThe Mission comprises two submissions, Sub-Mission I for Urban Infrastructure and Governance (UIG) and Submission II for Basic Services for the Urban Poor (BSUP). Ministry of Urban Development has the responsibility for UIG, while the Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation has the responsibility for BSUP.

Progress of ProjectsAs of now, 343 projects at a total cost of Rs. 32,795.12 crore have been sanctioned under the Urban Infrastructure & Governance sub-mission of JNNURM. The Additional Central Assistance committed by the Government towards meeting the central share of the total projects cost for these 343 projects is Rs. 15,892.85 crore, out of which an amount of Rs. 4,478.85 crore has been released to the Mission Cities.

The sector-wise break up of the 343 sanctioned projects shows that, in the areas of basic services, 103 water supply projects have been approved at a total sanctioned cost of Rs. 11,938.95 crore; 66 sewerage projects have been approved at a total sanctioned cost of Rs. 8,001.88 crore; 37 drainage (including storm water drainage) projects have been approved at a total sanctioned cost of Rs. 3,262.02 crore; and, 30 solid waste management projects have been approved at a total sanctioned cost of Rs. 1,581.57 crore. In the area of urban transport, 16 MRTS projects have been approved at a total sanctioned cost of Rs. 4,084.59 crore and 68 road projects have been approved at a total sanctioned cost of Rs. 2,838.74 crore. Other sectors for which projects have been approved include urban renewal, development of heritage areas, preservation of water bodies and other urban transport.

Out of the 343 sanctioned projects, 22 projects have been physically completed. These include six projects in Hyderabad, five projects in Surat, four projects in Ahmedabad, two projects in Visakhapatnam, and one project each in the cities of Bangalore, Bhopal, Indore, Nagpur and Nanded. The total sanctioned cost of these completed projects is Rs. 1,077.73 crore.

Progress of ReformsAs far as the progress of implementation of state level reforms till the end of year three of the Mission is concerned, 10 out of 11 states have transferred 12th Schedule Functions to the ULBs; 17 out of 22 states have constituted DPCs; 3 out of 8 states have constituted MPCs; 10 out of 14 states have transferred the City Planning Functions to the ULBs; all 12 states which were to have Transferred/Integrated Water Supply and Sanitation Functions have implemented the reform; 7 out of 12 states have undertaken Reform in Rent Control; all 8 states which were to have rationalized Stamp Duty to 5 per cent have achieved the reform; all 28 states which were to have repealed ULCRA have achieved the reform; 5 out of 18 states have enacted the Community Participation Law and 10 out of 16 states enacted the Public Disclosure Law.

Regarding implementation of ULB reforms —11 out of 31 cities have implemented e-Governance Reforms; 23 out of 33 cities have shifted to Double Entry Accrual Based Accounting; 11 out of 12 cities have achieved an 85 per cent Coverage of Property Tax; 9 out of 10 cities have achieved 90 per cent Collection Efficiency in Property Tax; all 6 cities have achieved 100 per cent Cost Recovery in water supply; 3 out of 4 cities have achieved 100 per cent Cost Recovery in Solid waste and 44 out of 47 cities have implemented Internal Earmarking of Funds for Services to Urban Poor.

InitiativesJNNURM has accelerated growth in the selected 63 Mission cities spread all over the country in mission-mode approach and aims to provide quality urban infrastructure and governance in these cities during the 7 year Mission period. Another components of JNNURM is the Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small & Medium Towns (UIDSSMT), which is as its name suggests is for towns and cities other than 63 Mission cities. Against the allocation of Rs. 6,400 crores during the Mission period; 691 projects in 558 towns in 23 states and two Union Territories have been sanctioned having a project cost of Rs. 8045.45 crores. A number of parallel initiatives i.e. Credit Rating of Urban local Bodies, Bench marking of Urban services, launch of Urban Sanitation Policy, National Mission Mode project on e-governance, Peer experience and Reflective Learning (PEARL), and Public Private Partnership (PPP) have been launched to sustain Mission activities.

The Ministry of Urban Development had decided that from the year 2008, a mega Conference-cum-Exhibition on Urban Mobility be organized every year coinciding with the anniversary of the launch of Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM). This year the aim of this Conference-cum-Exhibition is to bring all technology and service providers from India and abroad in all the fields of Urban Transport Planning from Pedestrians, Non-Motorised Transport, Metro, Bus, BRTS (Bus Rapid Transit System), LRT (Light Rail Transit), Trams, Inland Water Transport, Ropeways, Parking and the ITS (Intelligent Transportation System) on one platform to exchange and benefit with the experience, development of each other for better transportation planning. This will go a long way not only in dissemination of information but also in capacity building at various levels.

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission

The Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), aims to convert cities into engines of economic growth, to encourage urban fast-track integrated development.

JNNURM
The JNNURM was launched with a lot of fanfare by Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh on 3rd December, 2005. A total of 343 projects were sanctioned. It envisages an investment of more than Rs 1,00,000 crore with committed Central Government share of Rs 50,000 crore.

The State Governments and the Urban Local Bodies will contribute Rs 50,000 crore. The Mission is to be implemented in a time-frame of seven years (2005-2011). The objective is to ensure integrated development of urban infrastructure and services, secure effective linkages between asset creation and management and to ensure adequate investment of funds to address deficiencies in the urban infrastructure. It lays particular emphasis on providing basic services to the urban poor.

JNNURM has two components: Urban Infrastructure and Governance (UIG) for the bigger cities and Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for small and medium towns and aims to encourage reforms and to fast track planned development of identified cities with a focus on urban infrastructure. The progress of municipal reforms is an important component of the mission which enables a city to claim additional funds under this scheme. As per the 2001 population census, 285.35 million people reside in urban areas. It is about 28 per cent of the total population of the country.

The urban population has grown five times in the post-independence era. It has also given rise to an increase in the number of urban poor. As per the 2001 estimate, the slum population is estimated to be 61.8 million. Slum dwellers cause considerable pressure on the urban basic services and infrastructure. In order to cope with the massive problems that have emerged as a result of rapid urban growth, it has become imperative to draw up a coherent urbanization policy/strategy to implement projects in select cities on a mission mode.

In its third year since inception, the JNNURM is now progressing at an even pace. Under Urban Infrastructure and Governance (UIG) which focuses on 63 mission cities , 324 projects have been sanctioned covering 54 cities in 26 states and union territories in the country. The cost of these projects is estimated to be Rs 30,135.23 crore. The JNNURM came in for appreciation from the then Finance Minister Shri P Chidambaram, who proposed to increase the allocation of the mission from Rs 5,482 crore in 2007-08 to Rs 6,866 crore for 2008-09. The mission is seen as the main vehicle for improving urban infrastructure and has also succeeded in bringing about reforms in urban governance and urban related laws.

City Development Plan
The mission will also encourage cities to bring out a comprehensive City Development Plan (CDP) as against the traditional land-use plan. A development plan is an essential document to be prepared by cities to avail of central funds under the JNNURM. This plan will map the socio-economic infrastructure of the city, such as availability of basic healthcare and education—whether municipal schools and health clinics are located in the vicinity of informal or formal urban poor settlements.

This will facilitate the identification of areas not covered by health and education initiatives of municipalities. The CDP will also help integrate socio-economic development with infrastructure development by demarcating spaces for industry and services in the city, providing required infrastructure and streamlining licensing process through single window clearances. Despite the success stories surrounding the JNNURM, it is facing a shortage of funds.

Earlier, in its report submitted to the Planning Commission, the task force had cited reasons for additional government allocation and said that raising funds through external assistance programmes like the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank, was “a limited option.” The report also underlined the need to include the bankruptcy clause in municipal laws so that appropriate mechanisms can be put in place if local bodies are unable to meet their debt service obligations.

Mission Aims
The Mission envisages a change in the Rent Control legislation. This will encourage construction and development of more housing stock, promoting efficient and healthy rental/tenancy market. This will improve the housing situation, making comfortable houses available. The mission also envisages rationalization of stamp duties in states and cities and transparency in transfer of property. The Mission plans to bring about changes in the methods of levy, administration and collection of property taxes with the aim to establish a transparent, non-discretionary and equitable property tax regime. It also aims to provide basic services like water supply and sanitation to the urban poor.

Additional Funds
The Urban Development Ministry has sought additional funds to the tune of Rs 30,000 crore from the Government for the completion of infrastructure projects in 63 mission cities under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission, during the Eleventh Plan. The task force report recently submitted to the Planning Commission has underlined that the Central grant funding of Rs 20,000 crore is necessary for funding urban infrastructure projects. An additional Rs 10,000 crore has been sought for the provision of incentive for better performing states and cities.
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Urbanization and Health

Urbanization and Health

Rapid urbanization and the increase in the population of cities are recognized as being among the major challenges of health development. Between 1990 and 2025, the total urban population in developing countries is projected to increase threefold to almost 61% of the population.

It is associated with many health challenges related with water, environment, violence and injury, non-communicable diseases and their risk factors like tobacco use, unhealthy diets, physical inactivity and the risk associated with disease outbreaks.Time and again, the bright lights of the city prove an irresistible attraction for families living in the surrounding countryside. They converge in ever-growing numbers on the already over-crowded cities, only to face shortcoming in housing, water supply, sewage disposal, local transport and job opportunities.

The urban poor suffer from a wide range of diseases and other health problems, including chronic diseases and for some, communicable diseases such as tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS. The increasing concentration of people in urban centers has strained the capacity of most governments to provide basic services. Illegal slums and settlements are common. In such areas, people are usually deprived of access to the basic facilities of drinking water and waste disposal.

Resources are not adequate for removal or disposal of waste. Residents have little access to facilities which make for a reasonable quality of life and human development. Thus they often suffer from greater exposure to dust, unpleasant smells, chemicals and noise pollution, and the nature of dwelling makes them less able to withstand such hazards. There is direct link between people dwelling in such conditions and cholera, viral hepatitis, typhoid fever, schistomiasis, dirrhoeal and parasitic diseases that are carried by water or poor sanitation, overcrowding and poor diet.

They are also exposed to health risks of modern cities – traffic, pollution etc., and suffer the consequences of social and psychological instability as the traditional support structures of rural areas steadily disappear. Most people in such cities struggle to survive by participating in the informal economic sector where exposure to occupational hazard is of very little concern. Long – term exposure to high levels of air pollution in build up areas can cause respiratory disease, persistent decline in lung function, carcinogenic effects, effects on the nervous and immune systems, and development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

The growing realization that most of the improvements in health which has occurred in the recent past has come about because of action outside the medical sector – economic development, better nutrition and education, better housing, and a cleaner environment - has fostered renewed interest in Preventive Medicine. To make cities healthy, we must, all those who deal with aspects of the urban system that directly or indirectly affect health, involve themselves in urban health planning.

Urban planning can promote healthy behaviour and safety through investment in active transport, designing areas to promote physical activity and passing regulatory control on tobacco and food safety. Improving urban living conditions in the areas of housing, water and sanitation will go a long way to mitigate health risks. Building inclusive cities that are accessible and age-friendly will benefit all urban residents.

Such actions do not require additional funding, but commitment to redirect resources to priority interventions, thereby achieving greater efficiency.

Governing Cities: The Emerging Challenge for Inclusive City Development

Governing Cities: The Emerging Challenge for Inclusive City Development

The vision envisaged for Urban India in the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012) states that the “Indian cities will be the locus and engine of economic growth over the next two decades, and the realization of an ambitious goal of 9%–10% growth in GDP depends fundamentally on making Indian cities much more livable, inclusive, bankable, and competitive.” This vision is in tune with the urban reform linked Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) launched in December 2005.
JNNURM is being implemented through two sub-missions: Urban Infrastructure and Governance (UIG) and Basic Services for the Urban Poor (BSUP). Concurrently with JNNURM, the Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme has been launched for Small and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) and Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme (IHSDP) for medium and small towns not covered under the JNNURM. BSUP and IHSDP seek to achieve inclusive growth of cities and towns within the inherent constraints and weakness of the Urban Local Bodies.
Urbanisation Challenges:-
 Liberalisation and globalisation of nineties in India heralded rapid economic growth which also contributed to increase in the level of urbanization from 26 per cent in 1991 and to 28 per cent in 2001 and is further expected to increase to 30 per cent by 2011 and 38 per cent by 2026. Rapid urbanization in India is inevitable and has been duly recognized. The increasing urban population has given rise in the number of urban poor and slums, causing pressure on urban land, basic services and infrastructure. This is posing a challenge to promote inclusive, sustainable and equitable and pro-poor cities. Accordingly investments are going in the cities/towns to improve the social infrastructure and promote economic growth and increased employment. This requires pro-poor policy orientation, inclusiveness and empowerment.
          The Eleventh Five Year Plan titled ‘Towards a faster and inclusive growth’ reiterates the above. By inclusive growth the Plan refers to an all out effort to increase the access of basic social services to the masses not only as a welfare measure but as a strong justification for robust growth in the long run. Indian External Affairs Minister Shri S.M.Krishna at the closing session of the three-day Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Summit held in September 2010 at New York, asserted that Government of India is pursuing schemes of “inclusive growth” so that the fruits of growth reach everyone which is the main objective of India's ambitious socio-economic development programmes.
 Governing Cities
 The 74th Amendment to the Constitution of India along with its companion piece, namely, the 73rd Amendment are seen as a landmark in the history of decentralised governance in India. The main objective of these Amendments is to empower the people to take on increasing responsibilities of local self-governance through Municipalities and Panchayats. The 74th Amendment provides for a broad structure of Municipalities for organising urban governance with an accountable, responsive and decentralised system enabling participation of citizens in urban governance. More than one and a half decades have passed since the Constitution was amended and during this duration, several steps have been taken towards achieving the objectives of these Amendments. The steps taken by the States could not bring about uniformity in structure and functional regime of the municipal bodies.
              A review of the implementation of the 74th Amendment shows that these stipulations are yet to be fully realised as most of the States are yet to implement its several provisions. JNNURM has contributed to speedy adaptation of decentralization as it is one of its mandatory reforms. Still more attention and enforcement is required in its actual practice with participation of the citizens including the urban poor in the governance process.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

The Earth—Its Motions and their Effects The earth has two motions, viz., (1) Rotation around its axis or the daily motion. The axis of the earth is an imaginary line inclined at 66.5° to the plane of the orbit of the earth. The earth rotates round its axis from west to east once in 24 hours. Effects: Days and nights are caused. The sun, moon and other heavenly bodies appear to revolve round the earth from east to west. Direction of winds and currents is changed. (2) Revolution round the sun on its orbit, or the annual motion: The earth revolves round the sun once in about 365.25 days. Effects: It causes seasons; days and nights are of unequal length at the same place. Important elements in the earth’s crust The five most abundant elements in the earth’s crust are: Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminium, Iron and Calcium. (The other three are Sodium, Potassium and Magnesium.) Oceans—Their Importance Oceans are the source of all water on earth as the evaporated water from over their surface is brought to earth by the winds passing over them. They are the highways of the world and most of the world trade is carried through the sea. Innumerable fish and other animals living in the oceans are a great source of food to mankind. Minerals like salt, iodine etc. are derived from the ocean waters and sea-weeds. Ocean Currents: are rivers of warm or cold water flowing in an ocean. Their banks and beds also consist of water. Natural Regions A natural region is a large area in which the topography, climate and vegetation are largely similar, and therefore there is a certain uniformity in human activities. Natural Regions of the World (1) Equatorial Region (2) Hot-Grassland Region (3) Monsoon Region (4) Hot Deserts Region (5) Mediterranean Region (6) Steppe Region (7) Tundra Region (8) Warm Temperate Region (9) Cool Temperate Region. Natural Regions of India (1) The Himalayas and the adjacent mountains; (2) The Sutlej-Ganga plains; (3) The coastal plains of Western and Eastern ghats; (4) The Deccan plateau. Factors Determining Climate of a Place (1) Distance from the Equator (2) Height above sea-level (3) Distance from the sea (4) Winds (5) Direction of Mountains (6) Ocean currents (7) Slope of land (8) Nature of the soil (9) Forests. Factors Determining Temperature (i) sun rays, (ii) height above sea-level (iii) movements of atmospheric winds, (iv) ocean currents. Rainfall Two important conditions must be satisfied in order to have rain: (1) There should be moisture-laden air, (2) There should be some means whereby air is cooled and condensation takes place. The air obtains water vapours by evaporation from the surface of large bodies of water, usually from the sea. Monsoons in India Monsoons are periodic winds which blow from sea to land for six months in summer and from land to sea for six months in winter. Monsoon winds prevail over India at different seasons. South-West Monsoons: These are rain-bearing winds which prevail from about the end of May to the end of September. During summer, the sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Cancer making the Indian plains intensely hot. But the rays of the sun fall obliquely over the Indian Ocean during this period. The land is hotter than the sea, there is, therefore, low pressure over the land and high pressure over the sea. The winds blow from high to low pressure i.e., from the sea to the land, and are therefore wet winds. Because of the rotation of the earth, the monsoon winds blowing over India deflect to the right after crossing the Equator and become south-west winds. These are, therefore, called south-west monsoons. India depends largely on these rain-bearing south-west winds. These winds give to India about 90% of the total rainfall. During their prevalence, the chief crops cultivated are rice, cotton, tobacco, tea, jawar and bajra. North-East Monsoons (or Winter Monsoons): During the months of November to January i.e., in winter, the sun’s rays fall vertically on the Tropic of Capricorn. The air over the Indian Ocean during this period thus becomes hot and light and there is low pressure. The sun’s rays fall obliquely on the plains of India during these months with the result that the air over these plains is cold and heavy and there is high pressure. The winds, therefore, blow from plains to the Indian Ocean. While crossing the Equator, they deflect to the left and are known as north-east monsoons. The North-East Monsoons bring only about 10% of the total rain to India as they are chilly and dry land winds. But the moisture that they pick from the Bay of Bengal, little as it is, is very useful. Wheat, barley, oats, oilseeds and sugarcane are cultivated during this season. Thus these monsoon winds have much importance for India. Weather and Climate Weather means the atmospheric conditions e.g., temperature, rainfall, humidity, winds, sunshine and cloudiness of a particular place on a particular day. Climate, on the other hand, is the average condition of weather obtaining in a country or a place for a considerable period. India has a great diversity of climatic conditions. Lying largely within the tropics and in the great Asiatic Continent and the vast expanse of the Indian Ocean to the South, the climate of India is essentially the tropical monsoon type. The average annual rainfall in India is 42 inches. Types of Soil in India The main categories of soils in India are: (i) Alluvial soils (ii) Black soils (iii) Red soils (iv) Laterite soils (v) Mountain and hill soils (vi) Terai soils (vii) Desert (or Arid) soil and (viii) Peat soils. Alluvial soil and Black soil Alluvial soil is that soil which is formed by deposition of silts brought down by the rivers. It is rich in hydrated oxides of iron and is very fertile. Black soil or the black cotton soil has a good water-holding capacity and is best suited for deep-rooted crops like cotton. The black soil in wet condition is compact and sticky. The most extensive soil cover of India comprises alluvial soils. Soil Erosion: The soils are usually six to twelve inches in depth. In course of time, the fertility level of the soil is depleted with the result that the soil no longer remains suitable for agriculture. Soil conservation is, therefore, necessary for continued agricultural prosperity. The agencies of erosion are winds, water and waves of which the water erosion is most common. Rain water removes soil from the surface of sloping lands. Winds remove top soil of lands. Laterite soils are formed by the weathering of laterite rocks. These can be distinguished from other soils by their acidity. Laterite soils are generally poor on the higher levels and cannot retain moisture. In the plains, however, they consist of heavy loams and clay and can retain moisture. Laterite soils occur in Madhya Pradesh, Assam and along the Eastern and Western Ghats. Tea plantation requires acidity which is there in the laterite soil. It is, therefore, common in these areas. Star and Planet Star is the name given to a fixed celestial body which has its own light whereas Planet is the name given to a celestial body which revolves round the sun in elliptical (regular oval shape) orbit. A planet has no light of its own but reflects the light of the sun. Rocks Three main groups of rocks: Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Classification of rocks Igneous rocks: granite. Sedimentary rocks: sandstone; limestone; shale; coal. Metamorphic rocks: marble. Phyllite: This rock is formed by deposits of animal shells and skeletons. Land Breeze and Sea Breeze Land Breeze: At night, land masses cool quicker than the sea. Therefore, in calm, cloudless weather, an air-stream passes from the land to the sea. This breeze carries no moisture, and is a little warm. Sea Breeze: In day-time, the land is hotter than the sea. The air over it rises, and is replaced by a cool breeze from the sea carrying some moisture. Tides Alternate rise and fall of waters of the ocean twice in the course of nearly twenty four hours is termed as “tides”. The tides are caused by the gravitational force exerted by the moon and to a lesser degree by the sun, on the earth. The tides do not always rise to the same height. At the time of the new and full moon, when the sun and moon are in a straight line with the earth, the tides rise higher and are known as Spring Tides. Midway between new and full moon when the sun and the moon are at right angles as to their direction from the earth, tides are at the lowest height and are called Neap Tides. Spring Tides and Neap Tides When a high tide is caused twice a month at new moon and again when the moon is full, spring tide is caused as a result of combined attraction of the sun and the moon. When the high tide is not so high, nor the low tide so low, neap tides are caused as a result of the difference of attraction of the sun and the moon. Seasons The change of seasons is due to (i) revolution of the earth round the sun (ii) inclination of earth’s axis at 66.5° to the plane of its orbit and always pointing to the same direction. On the 21st June, the North Pole is inclined towards the sun and the South Pole is inclined away from it. The rays of the sun fall perpendicularly at the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° North) and fall comparatively slanting in the southern hemisphere. Hence the days are longer than nights in the northern hemisphere and it is summer there. Just opposite is the case in the southern hemisphere where the nights are longer at that time and it is winter there. Latitudes and Longitudes India lies entirely to the north of the Equator, between latitudes 8°-4´ and 37°-6´ north and longitude 68°-7´ and 97°-25´ east. The latitude of the South Pole is 90°. South Pole has no longitude. Longitude of a place is its distance east or west of a fixed meridian. The distance of any place north or south of the Equator is called the Latitude of that place. Parallels of latitude: are lines drawn on a map (or globe) showing the latitude of a place. Meridians (or lines) of longitude: These are lines drawn on a map (or globe) showing the longitude of a place. These lines join the north and south pole cutting the Equator at right angles. (Latitudes and Longitudes should be clearly distinguished from Parallels of Latitude and Meridians of Longitude respectively.) By knowing these lines, we can find out exact location of a place. By knowing the latitude of a place we can find out its average temperature, as also its distance from the Equator. By knowing the longitude of a place, we can calculate its local time. Longitude is the angular distance of a place east or west of the prime meridian. The earth rotates upon its axis once in 24 hours and covers 360° in 24 hours. Thus it takes 60 x 24/360 or 4 minutes to cover a degree of longitude or we may say that in four minutes, the earth moves through 1°. There is thus a difference of 4 minutes for each degree of longitude. This fact is used for determining the longitude of a place. All longitudes are measured from the meridian of Greenwich. We can determine the latitude of a place in the northern hemisphere by measuring the altitude of the Pole Star. The altitude of the Pole Star is the latitude of that place. For example, if the altitude of Pole Star at Delhi is 28.5° North, its latitude will also be 28.5°N. The altitude of Pole Star is measured by an instrument called Sextant. Solar Eclipse and Lunar Eclipse Solar Eclipse: is the partial or complete obscuration of the sun because of the passage of the moon in front of it i.e., when the moon comes in between the sun and the earth. The moon then appears as a dark object obscuring the sun. Over a small portion of the earth’s surface, the moon is seen to blot out the sun completely and a total eclipse is seen by the people in that particular area. But over most of the earth’s surface, the eclipse seen is partial because only a portion of the sun’s face remains covered by the moon. Lunar Eclipse: is the partial or complete obscuration of the moon’s surface when the earth comes in between the sun and the moon. The moon, when it moves through the shadow of the earth, loses its bright direct illumination by the sun, although its disc still remains faintly visible. An eclipse of the moon is visible and presents the same features at all places on the earth where the moon is above the horizon. The lunar eclipse can be seen with the naked eye, field glass or a small telescope. The lunar eclipse occurs at full moon only when the earth comes in between the sun and the moon which phenomenon does not occur at every full moon. Indian Standard Time The Indian Standard Time is a uniform time adopted by all palces in India without regard to their local time. It is usual for each country to have its standard time for use over the whole country as it would be very difficult if every town or village had its own local time and whenever we moved from one place to another, we should have to alter our watches. Indian Standard Time is the local time of a place near Allahabad situated at 82.5° East longitude. Winds Air moving from one direction to another horizontally is called wind. It is the air in motion. Cause of Wind: The chief cause of winds is difference in pressure. Air always moves from region of high pressure to a region of low pressure to equalize the pressure. For example, the low pressure belt round the Equator is a region of calm known as the doldrums. Although there are no regular winds there, violent squalls and thunderstorms are frequent which come from high pressure areas north and south of the Equator. Direction of Winds: As the earth is rotating daily on its axis from west to east, all winds are deflected. According to Ferrel’s Law, winds are deflected to the right in Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. Characteristics of the important Wind Systems of the World: 1. Trade Winds: The rays of the sun fall almost vertically at the Equator and the air there becomes hot and the pressure is low. The air rises towards the Poles and descends near 30°N and 30°S. The pressure is high near 30°N and 30°S. Because winds blow from high-pressure to low-pressure areas, winds from over these altitudes blow towards the Equator and Trade Winds are caused. 2. Westerlies (or Anti-Trade Winds): are winds which blow from about 40 degrees N to the Arctic Circle and from about 35 degrees S to the Antarctic Circle throughout the year. They derive their name from the direction in which they blow. In the northern hemisphere they blow in the south-westerly direction and bring winter rain to the Mediterranean regions etc. In the southern hemisphere, they blow in a north-westerly direction. 3. Polar Winds: The winds which blow from the high pressure area around the poles towards the temperate regions are known as polar winds. They are extremely cold. They rise from the North West in the Northern Hemisphere and from the South East in the Southern Hemisphere. 4. Periodical Winds: These are (i) Land and Sea Breezes and (ii) Monsoons which blow in one direction at a particular time or during a particular season. In the hot season in India, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer, i.e., roughly over the great plains of the Ganges and Brahmaputra so that the air over the plains becomes very hot by about the month of May. At this time, South West Monsoon commences to blow. They bring heavy rains. Monsoon winds prevail over India at different seasons. India depends on the rain-bearing south-west winds which prevail from about the end of May to the end of September. These winds bring to India about 90% of all the rain that falls there. 5. Variable Winds: are the irregular winds as Cyclones and Anti-Cyclones. Rainfall There is heavy rainfall on the West coast because the Western Ghat ranges receive the full force of the monsoons from the Arabian sea and there is heavy rainfall (about 100 inches). On the other hand, the Deccan Plateau gets very scanty rainfall because it falls within the rain-shadow area. Chennai gets winter rainfall as the north-east monsoons which blow in winter pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and bring rain to that city. The Bay of Bengal monsoons first bring rain to the eastern parts and then turn westwards. As Kolkata is in the east, it receives more rainfall. As the monsoons blow westwards they become drier and cause less rainfall. So Delhi does not get as much rainfall as Kolkata. In the northern region, the Bay of Bengal monsoons first bring rain to eastern parts and then turn westwards. As the monsoons blow westwards, they go on losing moisture and cause decreasing rainfall. In the southern region, the Arabian Sea monsoons first strike the western ghats and the moisture is drained on the western side whereas rainfall goes on decreasing towards eastern region. Two important conditions must be satisfied in order to have rain: (1) There should be moisture-laden air, (2) There should be some means whereby air is cooled and condensation takes place. The air obtains water vapours by evaporation from the surface of large bodies of water, usually from the sea. The moisture-laden air is cooled in two ways: (i) by rising upward into colder upper regions of the atmosphere, (ii) by blowing as wind to colder regions. Thus we see: (a) Moist air is lighter than dry air and so it readily rises, expands in a short time, cools and falls. (b) When warm winds blow towards cooler regions, it is condensed by cooling effect and rain falls. (c) The land masses or mountains also tend to condense water vapours. When moisture-laden wind is obstructed by mountains, it is forced to rise. As it rises, it becomes cool and rainfall results. Rivers The work of a river is three-fold: (i) The Mountain Stage: The mountain or upper course of a river is swift as the slope at this stage of a river is steep. The main work of a river at this stage is denudation (wearing away). In this swift upper course, the rivers carry big stones, pebbles etc. which go on eroding the sides and beds of the valleys. As time goes on, the river cuts away the spurs on both sides and the valleys become wider and deeper. The mountain stage of the Ganges in India extends from its source up to Hardwar. (ii) The Plain Stage: In this stage the river moves slowly as the slope is gradual and its main work is transportation (navigation) and irrigation. The plain stage of the Ganges extends from Hardwar to Bhagalpur. (iii) The Delta Stage: This is the last stage and the rivers are very slow at this stage. In this slow lower or deltaic course, the main work of the river is deposition. The level of the bed at this stage rises due to mud and silt brought by it and deposited into several channels before falling into the sea. The Ganges forms her delta from Bhagalpur up to the sea. The deltas are not formed at the mouths of rivers where tides carry away all the mud and silt deposited (at the mouth) e.g., the Narbada and the Tapti do not form any delta. Also rivers which deposit all their mud into the lakes through which they pass do not form delta e.g., the St Lawrence in Canada. Estuary is formed at the mouth of a river where tidal effects are evident and where fresh water and sea water mix. In most cases it is due to subsidence of coastal low-land. Delta is the triangular piece of land formed by the deposition of mud and silt near the mouth of a river. In the case of delta formation, more solid material is deposited which cannot be removed by tidal or other currents. The rivers of Northern India are more important than those of Southern India because they have a flow of water throughout the year. Even in summer these rivers receive water from the melting of Himalayan snow. Flowing through broad basins, they form large tracts or rich alluvial soil on either side. It is no wonder, therefore, that their fertile basin are the natural grannaries of the country. Further, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra are navigable and provide excellent waterways for commerce. The Peninsular rivers, on the other hand, have water during the monsoons but shrivel into muddy pools in the dry season. These rivers are of little use for navigation on account of their torrential nature in the upper course, and the rapids that occur where they descend into deep gorges from the table land to the coastal plains. Climate and Vegetation The Equatorial type climate, in which the temperature remains high all the year round but does not vary much, produces hot, wet forests. The Tropical type climate produces grasslands which are found on either side of the equatorial belt where the rainfall usually occurs soon after the sun has been shining vertically while the dry season occurs in the colder part of the year. The lowlands along the Tropic of Cancer lie mainly in the high-pressure belt just outside the Tropics. The Trade Winds blow away from these lowlands towards the Equator and the Westerly winds blow away from them towards the Poles. There are, therefore, no winds to bring rain to this region. Some of these lowlands are dry because these are very very far from the sea, like centre of Asia. There are few clouds and very little rain with the result that the sun’s rays strike straight on the ground and make the days very hot. The temperature of the ocean varies much less than that of land because (i) water has a higher specific heat than land with the result that it both absorbs and loses heat slowly as compared to land; and (ii) due to large surface of water at sea more evaporation occurs than on land. Evaporation causes cooling and this results in the sea having a lower temperature than that on land. We may divide India into two parts for the purpose of climatological studies: (1) peninsular India and (2) Northern India. Peninsular India has the characteristic of tropical climate where “the temperature is uniformly high and seasonal variation relatively low”. The climatic conditions in Northern India have no general similarity. This region lies beyond the Tropic of Cancer. The Western part of it includes East Punjab and Rajasthan where air is devoid of moisture and it is hot in summer and very cold in winter. The eastern part of this region includes U.P., Bihar, Assam and West Bengal. Here winter is mild and summer is very hot with plenty of moisture in the air. These climatic conditions are however, disturbed by two Monsoon Currents—the South West Monsoon and the North-East Monsoon. The South-West Monsoon causes heavy rainfall in Assam, West Bengal and U.P. It begins to retreat from Northern India in early October and this retreat is completed by mid-December. During this retreat period the weather in Northern India becomes dry. The North-East monsoons begin in January and last till March. These winds cause light rain in Northern India, particularly in the Punjab plains. This scanty rainfall is very important for Rabi crops. Vegetation: Agriculture is the most important occupation of the people of India. In Northern India, typical monsoon land crops are grown such as rice in Bengal with its warm and humid climate; wheat and maize in Northern plains, Punjab and U.P.; jute in Bengal and Assam and tea in Assam. In Peninsular India where regur or black cotton soil is found and sufficient moisture available, cotton is grown. It is the chief crop of the Deccan Peninsula—Mumbai and Berar being the chief producers. Coffee is grown on the Nilgiris in the South. Climatic Effect: India has on the whole monsoon-tropical climate: ‘Monsoon—lands are dominated by the winds from sea to land in summer—the wet season and by winds from land to sea in winter—the dry season.’ This type of climate is not very conducive to health and vigour. Man’s well-being in such a climate depends largely on rainfall. The agricultural products do not grow if the monsoon fails and famine conditions break out. This dependence on rain, however, is not absolute owing to development of irrigation by means of projects, canals, wells etc. The desert type climate is hot and dry. The rainfall is scanty, not more than 10 inches a year. The day and night temperatures vary to much extent. The evenings and afternoons are marked by hot dust storms. The regions lie mainly in the high-pressure belts just outside the Tropics. The Trade Winds blow away from them towards the Equator and the Westerly Winds blow away from them towards the Poles. There are no winds which bring rain to this region and the climate remains hot and dry. Mediterranean Climate It is the type of climate experienced by the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea, and also by other regions, in both hemispheres, situated in a similar geographical position. The characteristic features are warmth of the summer, mildness of the winter, and ample sunshine. The entire west coast of the United States has Mediterranean type of climate because this region gets winter rainfall from “Westerlies” winds. Irrigation Methods of Irrigation: The various systems of irrigation used in India are: (1) Canals; (2) Wells; (3) Tube-wells; and (4) Tanks. Canals: Canals are the most important of the systems of irrigation in India because: (i) the rivers are snow-fed and never run dry; (ii) the plain has a soft and alluvial soil, so canals can be easily dug; (iii) the rainfall is insufficient for irrigation and wells alone cannot satisfy the needs of agriculturists. Of the total irrigated land in India, 40 per cent is irrigated by canals. Wells: Wells are found all over India but these are largely used in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Bihar. They are also used in Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. The reason for irrigation by wells is that the soil is porous and after a rainfall, water is stored up below the soil, and wells can be easily sunk. Tube-wells: Irrigation by tube-wells has become very popular these days. Tube-wells are worked by electric power. These are much deeper than the ordinary wells. Due to shortage of power, the agriculturists do face the difficulty in running the tube-wells as and when they require but the prosperous ones are making use of the diesel engines for the purpose. Tanks: Tanks are used in the Deccan plateau—especially in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and in some parts of Madhya Pradesh. They are made by filling natural hollows with water or by building dams across the river valleys. As the soil is rocky in these areas, it is not easy to sink wells. The soil is not porous and the rain water flows off; Canals cannot be constructed as the rivers are not snow-fed. So the tanks are the chief means of irrigation in the Deccan plateau. Volcanoes and Earthquakes Volcanoes: By the pressure of the earth’s crust the hot matter or lava in the interior of the earth is pressed down. It gushes out through a crack or a hole when it finds a weak spot in the crust and begins to accumulate round it. By and by it cools down and solidifies and in the course of several years these accumulated layers of lava build up a conical mountain. Such lava mountains are called volcanoes. Volcanoes are also formed when rain or sea water percolates in the soil and sinks deep down into the earth where it is converted into steam by the internal heat and forces its way out of the crust bringing with it large quantity of lava etc. Earthquakes: (i) When an active volcano bursts with great force or when a dormant volcano erupts into activity, the surrounding areas feel tremors and earthquake is caused. (ii) When the interior part of the earth cools down and contracts, the outer crust cracks or a part of it actually drops down causing earthquake. (iii) Sometimes water percolates deep down into the earth and is converted into steam on account of internal heat. This steam forces its way out by expanding and thus causes earthquake shocks. Fold and Block Mountains Fold Mountains: These are formed as a result of series of earthquakes by which in course of a long time, rocks are folded up above the general level and the agents of denudation start to wear them away. The Himalayas, the Andes, the Alps are example of Fold Mountains. Block Mountains: the formation of mountains when a mass of land is pushed up between several cracks, is known as Block Mountains as shown in the figure below. The narrow piece of the crust led down between two parallel cracks forms what is called “Rift Valley”. Mountain Ranges Himalayas: The Himalayan ranges stretch for about 2400 km from the eastern extremity of Assam to the western limit of Kashmir. Their width varies from 150 km to 450 km. These are fold mountains and consist of long lines of folded ranges. Arvalies: It stretches from Gujarat in the west to Delhi in the north. Indian Plateau: It is the table-land region of the Deccan lying south of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It is bounded on the north by the ranges of Vindhyas and the Satpuras running east to west. Vindhyas and Satpura: The Vindhyas lie north of the Narbada Valley, whereas the Satpuras Range lies south. Satpura ranges are an example of Volcanic mountains. Western Ghats: In the west, the plateau is margined by the Western Ghats which rise abruptly from the Malabar and the Konkan coasts and run parallel to the sea coast with an average height of 1200 metres. Eastern Ghats: Towards the east are broken Eastern Ghats which descend to the low-lands of the Coromandal coast and are broken by a number of rivers, the most important of which are the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Penner and Cauvery. These rivers flow south-east across the plateau to the Bay of Bengal.

Mineral Resources of India

Indian Mineral Resources

Coal Resources in India
West Bengal (Raniganj, Burdwan, Bankura, Purulio, Birbhum, Jalpaigudi, Darjeeling), Jharkhand (Jharia, Giridih, Kharhawadi, Bokaro, Hazaribagh, Kamapura, Rampur, Palamau), Orissa (Rampur, Hindgir, Talcher, Sambal), Madbyo Pradesh and Chhatisgarh (Rewa, Pench valley, Umaria, Korba, Sohagpur, Mand river area, Kanha valley, Betul), etc. Power sector is the largest consumer of coal in India followed by steel industry, cement industry, etc.
Manganese
Orissa, Maharashtra (Nagpur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri), Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat, Chhindawara), Karnataka (Keonjhar, Bonai, Kalahandi), Andhra Pradesh (Kadur, Garibadi).
Copper Minerals
Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat), Rajasthan (Khetri), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Masobani, Surda), Karnataka (Chitradurg, Hassan).
Mica Minerals
Jharkhand (Hazaribagh, Giridih, Kodarma), Bihar (Goya, Bhagalpur), Andhra Pradesh (Guntur, Vizag, Kurnool), Rajasthan (Bhilwara, Udaipur, Jaipur).
Petroleum Resources in India
Assam (Digboi, Naharkatiya, Badarpur, Masinpur and Pallharia), Gujarat, (Ankleshwar, Khambat, Kalol), Mumbai High, Bassein (south of Mumbai High), etc. Recently oil has been discovered in Cauvery basin, Krishna and Godavary basin, Khambat basin, etc.
Iron Resources
India possesses Haematite, a very high-grade iron ore. In Madhya Pradesh (Bailadila, Jabalpur), Goa (North Goa), Karnataka (Bababudan hills, Chikmagalur, Hospet), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Naomundi), Andhra Pradesh, Orissa.

India is the fifth largest exporter of iron ore in the world. Japan is the biggest buyer accounting for about 3/4th of India’s total exports. Major ports handling iron ore export are Vishakhapatnam, Paradip, Marmagao and Mangalore.
Bauxite Resources
Chief ore for producing aluminium. In Orissa (Kalahandi, Koraput, Sundargarh, Bolangir, Sambalpur), Jharkhand (Lohardaga, Gumla), Madhya Pradesh (Jabalpur, Mandla, Shahdol, Kami, Balaghat), Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu.
Gold Resources in India
Karnataka (Kolar, Hutti, Raichur), Andhra Pradesh (Ramgiri and Yeppamanna goldfields in Chittor and Anantapur districts).
Silver, Zinc & Lead
Rajasthan (Zawar mines near Udaipur), Andhra Pradesh (Mysore, Chitradurg), Karnataka (Kolar mines).
Uranium Resources in India
Jharkhand (Jaduguda), Rajasthan (Ajmer), Andhra Pradesh (Nellore, Nalgonda), Karnataka (Gulbarga).
Thorium Resources in India
Kerala coast (From Monazite sand), rocks of Aravallis in Rajasthan.
Oil Refineries
There are 19 refineries in India, 16 in public sector, one in joint sector and two in private sector. Public sector refineries are located at Digboi, Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni, Haldia, Koyali, Mathura, Kochi, Chennai, Vishakhapatnam, Mumbai (2), Panipat, Narimanam, Numanigarh and Tatipaka. Joint sector refinery is at Mangalore. The private sector refinery of Reliance Limited is at Jamnagar, Gujarat and Essar Refinery at Vadinar, Gujarat.

1. Haldia Refinery (IOC)
2. Mumbai Refinery (HPCL)
3. Panipat Refinery (IOC)
4. Vishakhapatnam Refinery (HPCL)
5. Digboi Refinery (IOC)
6. Mumbai Refinery Mahaul (BPCL)
7. Gujarat Refinery (IOC)
8. Nagapattnam Refinery (CPCL)
9. Barauni Refinery (IOC)
10. Kochi Refinery (Kochi Refineries Ltd)
11. Guwahati Refinery (IOC)
12. Numaligarh Refinery (NRL)
13. Mathura Refinery (IOC)
14. Mangalore Refinery (MRPL)
15. Bongaigaon Refinery (IOC)
16. Tatipaka Refinery (ONGC)
17. Manali Refinery (IOC)
18. Essar Refinery (Essar)
19. Jamnagar Refinery (Reliance Petroleum)

     

Indian Towns Associated with Industries

Indian Towns Associated with Industries

Town	State	Industries
Ahmedabad	Gujarat	Cotton Textiles
Agra	U.P	Leather, Marble, Carpet
Aligarh	U.P	Locks, Cutlery
Ankleshwar	Gujarat	Oil Fields
Ambernath	Maharashtra	Machine Tools
Amritsar	Punjab	Woolen Clothes
Anand	Gujarat	Milk and its Products
Alwaye	Kerala	Fertilizer, Monazite Factory
Ambala	Haryana	Scientific Instruments
Bokaro	Jharkhand	Steel Plant
Bangalore	Karnataka	Telephones, Aircrafts, Motors, Cotton Textiles, Toys
Batanagar	West Bengal	Shoes
Bareilly	U.P	Resin Industries, Match Factory

Town	State	Industries
Bhilai	Chhattisgarh	Steel Plant
Barauni	Bihar	Chemical Fertilizer
Burnpur	West Bengal	Steel Plant
Bhurkunda	Jharkhand	Glass Industries
Bhagalpur	Bihar	Silk industries
Bhandara	Maharashtra	Explosives
Bhadravati	Karnataka	Iron & Steel
Bongaigaon	Assam	Petroleum
Bhadoi	U.P	Carpets
Churk	M P	Cement
Cyberabad	Andhra Pradesh	Electronics, Computers, Information technology
Chitranjan	West Bengal	Locomotive
Kolkata	West Bengal	Jute, Leather, Electric goods
Cochin	Kerala	Ship building, coconut oil, rubber
Calicut	Kerala	Coffee, coconut
Coimbatore	Tamil Nadu	Cotton industries
Dhariwal	Punjab	Woolen clothes
Durgapur	West Bengal	Steel
Digboi	Assam	Petroleum
Delhi	Delhi	Textiles, Electronics, D.D.T
Dalmianagar	Bihar	Cement
Darjeeling	W. Bengal	Tea
Dindigul	Tamil Nadu	Cigar, Tobacco
Frozabad	M.P	Bangle works
Guntur	Andhra Pradesh	Cotton industries
Gwalior	Madhya Pradesh	Pottery, Tobacco
Gomia	Jharkhand	Explosives
Hardwar	Uttarakhand	Heavy electricals
Hatia	Jharkhand	Heavy Engineering Corporation
Haldia	W. Bengal	Chemical fertilizer
Hazira	Gujarat	Artificial Rayon
Jamshedpur	Jharkhand	Iron & Steel, Locomotives, Railway coaches
Jallundhur	Punjab	Surgical goods and sports articles
Jaipur	Rajasthan	Cloth Printing, Brass
Jharia	Jharkhand	Coal mines
Jabalpur	Madhya Pradesh	Bidi industry
Jainakot	Jammu & Kashmir	H.M.T watch
Japla	Jharkhand	Cement
Kanpur	U.P	Cotton and Woollen mills, Leather, Sugar
Katni	M.P	Cement
Korba	Chattisgarh	Aluminium factory, Thermal plant
Koyna	Maharashtra	Aluminium factory
Koyali	Gujarat	Petrochemical industries
Kolar	Karnataka	Gold mining centre
Kota	Rajasthan	Atomic power plant
Kanchipuram	Tamil Nadu	Silk clothes
Karnal	Haryana	Dairy product
Kandla	Gujarat	Chemical fertiliser, famous port
Khetri	Rajasthan	Copper industries
Ludhiana	Punjab	Hosiery
Lucknow	U.P	Embroidery work, Chicken work
Chennai	Tamil Nadu	Leather, cigarette, Integral coach factory
Madurai	Tamil Nadu	Cotton and Silk Weaving
Mirzapur	U.P	Carpet, Pottery, Brass industries
Muradabad	U P	Brassware, cutlery
Mathura	U.P	Oil refinery
Mysore	Karnataka	Sandalwood oil, Silk goods
Meerut	U.P	Publication work, Sports goods, Scissors making
Mumbai	Maharashtra	Cinema industries, Cotton textiles
Modinagar	U.P	Nylon thread
Moorie	Jharkhand	Aluminium
Majhagaon	Maharashtra	Ship building
Nagpur	Maharashtra	Cotton mills, Oranges
Nepanagar	Madhya Pradesh	Newsprint
Nasik	Maharashtra	Security Printing Press
Neyveli	Tamil Nadu	Lignite industries
Nunamati	Assam	Oil refineries
Narora	U.P	Atomic Power Plant
Nangal	Punjab	Fertilisers
Panna	M.P	Diamond mining
Pinjore	Haryana	Hindustan Machines Tools
Perambur	Tamil Nadu	Integral coach factory
Pimpri	Maharashtra	Penicillin factory
Raniganj	W. Bengal	Coal mining
Rourkela	Orissa	Steel plant, Chemical fertiliser
Rana Pratap Sagar	Rajasthan	Hydro Power Plant
Renukoote	U.P	Aluminium Plant
Roopnarayanpur	W. Bengal	Cables
Rishikesh	Uttarakhand	Antibiotic Plant
Saharanpur	U.P	Cigarette factory, News print
Sindri	Jharkhand	Chemical fertilizers
Srinagar	Jammu & Kashmir	Woolen shawls, Silk, Woodwork
Surat	Gujarat	Cotton textiles, Diamond Cutting
Surajpur	Haryana	Cement factory
Suratgarh	Rajasthan	Agriculture implements
Singhbhum	Jharkhand	Copper, Iron
Singreni	Andhra Pradesh	Cool mining
Salem	Tamil Nadu	Iron and Steel
Samastipur	Bihar	Jute, Paper, Tobacco, Sugar
Tarapur	Maharashtra	Atomic Power Plant
Titagarh	W. Bengal	Paper & Jute
Thiruvananthapuram	Kerala	Coir matting
Trombay	Maharashtra	Oil refinery
Tiruchirapalli	Tamil Nadu	Cigar
Tirupati	Andhra Pradesh	Scooter
Tanjore	Tamil Nadu	Silk clothes
Thumba	Kerala	Rocket launching Station
Vijaypur	M.P	Fertilizers
Viiaynagar	Karnataka	Steel Plant
Vishakhapatnam	A.P	Ship building, Iron and Steel, Oil refinery
Varanasi	U.P	Rail Engines and Saari industries
Worli	Maharashtra	Baby food
Zainkot	J & K	HMT Watches

Prosperity Through Environment

Protection of the environment in all its forms has been receiving much public attention at domestic and international forums. The question is by no means new but it has acquired much greater urgency than ever before because of the ceaseless pollution of the atmosphere, the reckless destruction of the multi-faceted gifts of Nature by thoughtless human beings. Among the offenders are people who are, or should be, aware of the folly of their deeds and the irreparable damage they are doing to the safety and prosperity of mankind, the present and the future generations. Hence the environmentalists' clarion call. Human existence depends upon the environment. Few persons would now question the statement that we have been poisoning or destroying valuable resources on earth (including water) and also in the air—all in the name of economic development. In fact, development, expansion and growth are the key slogans in the modern world; nothing else seems to matter. Senseless poisoning is proceeding with unbelievable speed. While genocide rightly receives severe condemnation, ‘‘ecoside’’—ruthless murder of the environment—has only recently become a cognisable offence. After all, it is the biosphere, that is, the air and water encasing the earth, besides the green cover and the wildlife, that sustain life on this planet. In chemical terms, it is the mixture and fine balance of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapour that is vital for life. These are operated and maintained by multiple biological processes. For centuries man took for granted that the bounties of Nature were inexhaustible and that the resources get renewed automatically. Both these assumptions have lately been proved wrong. The struggle now is for adequate renewal of such resources as man has to use every day, and also for preservation and protection of as many resources as possible. Attempts are being made to check the reckless destruction of precious environment. Scientists have warned that mankind might have to return to the much-dreaded ‘‘ice age’’ if the reckless destruction of trees, other greenery and natural resources continues at the pace associated with ‘‘modern’’ progress, especially in industry. A look-back in this regard would be helpful. Oddly enough, it was only in 1972 that the first systematic international effort was made to take stock of the situation and plan adequate steps to counter the process of destruction. The step was the UN Conference on Environment held in Sweden. The conference was poorly attended, for political and other reasons. Then came the UN Habitat Conference on Human Settlements in 1975 in Vancouver and the UN Desertification Conference in Nairobi in 1977 to check the ruinous growth of deserts. But in many ways the year 1990 marked a specific advance in the programmes for saving mankind from disaster. The occasion marked recognition of the basic fact that the environmentalists are fighting for the concept of sustainable progress with the belief that environment and development are not opposite poles. In this connection, the observation of the Brundtland Commission (in its report published in 1987) was recalled. The commission said: ‘‘Economy is not just about the production of wealth, and ecology is not just about the protection of Nature; they are both equally relevant for improving the lot of mankind.’’ The Montreal Protocol was very much in the news in 1990. The aim of the Protocol is to save the precious ozone layer from chemical damage. All enlightened countries now concede that destruction of the ozone layer will have serious consequences on human, animal and plant life. There is no denying that the major culprits in causing pollution and damaging the ozone layer are the developed countries. These countries have benefited all through the years by using cheap CFCs and have harmed the global environment. If they want the developing countries to restrain themselves from following the same course, they should assist them. Though the developing countries produce only a small proportion of the world output of CFCs, they require massive assistance to switch over to new technologies and to less harmful substitutes. Therefore, a large fund is needed. The Government of India’s growing concern over this problem is obvious from the establishment of a department and Ministry for Environment and the series of laws passed to check the practices that endanger the environment. Among these are: The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, the Water (Pollution and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the Environment (Protection) Act, May 1986, the Forests (Conservation) Act, 1980, the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, which has been frequently amended to make it more effective. Besides, there is a full-fledged national forest policy, several programmes and projects to conserve the environment and check the destructive practices. There have been many social conflicts over the issue of natural resources in India. The controversies over the Sardar Sarovar Dam and the Narmada Project are among the outstanding examples. Competing claims and Inter-State disputes over water and forests are quite common. As in the case of land disputes, the controversies over the natural resources involve vested interests. There are, in many cases, unequal antagonists; several agrarian conflicts have ecological roots. The grave consequences of some of the dam construction projects have been highlighted by the numerous agitations carried on by voluntary agencies and courageous individuals. The Chipko movement started by the brave Sunderlal Bahugana to save the Garhwal forests won well-deserved international recognition. The social good has to be weighed against individual benefit and a rational balance needs to be struck. The writing on the wall is clear. If the present generation fails to preserve and protect Nature’s bounty, the coming generations will hold us guilty of betraying an invaluable trust. But in their excessive zeal the environmentalists ignore a vital aspect. India needs more foodgrains, more water, more electricity, more industries for manufacturing and finishing goods for domestic consumption and exports—all for the social good. Dams over rivers and construction of large power houses to harness energy sources enable the economy to flourish. These amenities can be made available only by sacrificing some of the greenery. If the building of large dams is to be halted in response to the environmentalists' agitations, where are the additional foodgrains, irrigation facilities and uninterrupted power for industry to come from?

Article:Population Explosion - How can we tackle this problem?

Population Explosion - How can we tackle this problem?

It is rightly said ‘The greatest shortcoming of the human race is our inability to understand the exponential function’. For countries like Spain, Canada and Italy, where the population is decreasing, population explosion might be considered as a boon. But for developing country like India, population explosion is nothing but a curse which is damaging the development of the country and its society. With 16% of world’s population, India is the second most populated country in the world. A developing country already faces a lack in their resources and needs. And with the rapidly escalating population, the resources available per person are further plummeting, leading to increased poverty, malnutrition and other large population related problems. Therefore, predicament is much more severe here in India because of the escalating pressure on the limited resources of the country.

The rapid growth of the world's population over the past one hundred years results from a difference between the rate of birth and the rate of death. It took the entire history of humankind for the population to reach 1 billion around 1810. Today the world has a population of 6 billion and the population of India stands at about 1 billion. This only means that more people are now being added each day than at any other time in human history which poses as a major problem.

As far as India is concerned, according to statistics, as of March 2011, the total population of India was a little over 1 billion - 1,210,193,422 to be exact. The population clock in the Union Health Ministry in New Delhi now ticks at the rate of 31 persons per minute! The clock shows that about 44,640 babies are born in India every day. This gigantic growth rate is due to the industrial and technical revolutions that has taken place. The new technologies available have brought down the death rate because of the vastly improved Medicare resulting in increased life expectancies. Various cultures and norms, migration all have contributed in this regard. India is projected to overtake China as the world's most populous nation by 2030.

This increase or overpopulation now has given rise to various problems like illiteracy, unemployment, pollution and poverty. We have created an interrelated web of global environmental problems. We are destroying our natural resources and biological diversities. India is facing an intense crisis of resources. There is fierce competition for the nation's limited natural resources leading to quarrels between states, between communities and even families. The fast rate of growth of population has affected the quality of life of the people.

To check ill-effects of population growth on the socio-economic front, the Indian Government had launched the Family Planning Programme in 1951. This was later rechristened as the Family Welfare Programme. This programme promotes on a voluntary basis, responsible Planned Parenthood, through independent choice of family planning methods best suited to the people. This if properly implemented by making them rightly follow the slogan ‘one couple, two children’ could do wonders. But, at the same time a proper family planning would only work if women, especially in the rural ideas could be made to come out of the false notion that having many children is a boon. And for this, the requirement is to improve the literacy rate, female education and the socio-economic status of the families as population growth is directly allied to these factors. Special benefits and provisions need to be highlighted and be provided to the

people who have one child and maintain a small family. Benefits like free education, better facilities and financial support should be put forward so as to encourage nuclear families.

Therefore, I believe the need of the hour to tackle this problem of overpopulation lies in education. This can be done if one person takes into their stride of educating the other. ‘Each one, teach one’ should be followed and advocated. Persuasive measures need to be taken. We have seen in the past that there have been coercive measures attempted in India. In 1975- 77, former Prime Minister Indira Gandhi created sterilization camps and forced vasectomies causing population-control policies to be met with strong resistance and fear, which stagnating progress significantly. More recently, the government has considered using injection birth- control methods, which have been alleged to have significant negative side effects and recall the coercive measures of the 70s.

What thus needs to ensue is support-financial and political, that must be given to promote, encourage and facilitate birth control and methods which involve people as an agent of change rather than being a source of dilemma. Around 30 million Indians want to use contraceptives, but do not have access to them; money ought to be given to provide it. Others are unaware and unwilling to discuss birth control methods, efforts must be made to promote discussion and spread knowledge of it to those who are receptive. Also, campaigns currently expound on the good of the country. Instead, media should emphasize that a small family is beneficial to an individual's own well-being rather than focusing on population control for the national good. These types of measures have been enacted in some states including Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, and they have since been country’s growth stability leaders. They now show high literacy rates and thus a well planned society. This has to be cultured all over India. The philosophy must be to have the people be an active participant in the country’s problem. If the people understand that and want to help, then the problem disappears because there is no one left to cause it.

Gandhi advocated that it is easier to practice self control than control by contraceptives. Multiplicity of wants would multiply problems in multiple folds. Thus, to tackle the problem, rather than following stringent rules and regulations, a change of mindset would help more through the involvement of education, advertisement and campaigns ensuring for a developed and a healthy India. Therefore, all we need is to shift the mindsets from “Population Control” to “Population Development”. Development of people through right education and healthcare can solve much issues-even population, assuming it is a problem!

Lastly, it can be concluded by saying that with so many of us on a very small planet, and with the addition of so many more every week, we can no longer persist to relate to each other, or our environment, ecological systems and biosphere like we have, as we will succumb to the effects of human overpopulation. Mother Nature, which could not care less, will eliminate us. We humans must grow up and learn to walk, hand in hand with each other and with our natural world. There is no alternative if we yearn to sustain humanity and advance our civilization.