The Significance of Cooperatives for Social Justice

Throughout the world today, societies are being torn apart due to the fact that various social groups and classes are not getting their due respect from other forces in society. Many societies are lacking social justice which could be seen as equal opportunity treatment of all persons in society. Various institutions have the responsibility to ensure this happens. Yet social justice is absent in many instances. Cooperatives are based on principles and values that speak directly to the issue of social justice. Most traditional cooperatives follow the seven principles of cooperative identity, promoted by the International Cooperative Alliance (ICA), an Apex organization for cooperatives around the world. These principles call for the practice of democracy, equality, equity and solidarity. Cooperatives also embrace the ethical values of honesty, openness, social responsibility and caring for others. With these principles and values at the core of cooperative operations, the poor, excluded and marginalized sectors of society are usually served well by cooperatives. The financial sector is one area where this has shown well. Financial cooperatives are some of the largest providers of micro-finance services to the poor. It is estimated that globally, financial cooperatives reach 78 million clients living below a poverty line of $2 per day. Financial cooperatives thus play a central role in the achievement of an inclusive financial sector that encompasses the poor. Through their commitment to servicing the poor and under-served, financial cooperatives are helping to lessen the burden of poverty. Financial cooperatives, by providing savings products, help to reduce members’ vulnerabilities to shocks such as medical emergencies. Cooperatives have also been instrumental in promoting inclusive development in rural areas, helping to both strengthen and diversify rural economies. Financial cooperatives provide access to credit for members who might not typically have access to the larger savings and commercial banks. This is significant in markets where financial providers are absent owing to poor revenue prospects, high risks, or high transaction costs. This access to financial services often supports the formation of small and micro businesses. Cooperatives have also been able to strengthen agricultural production and improve access of poor farmers, especially through engaging in fair trade arrangements. Small farmers who struggle to create and sustain businesses of their own are able to increase farm revenues, lower marketing and information-gathering costs, as well as enter into high-value supply chains that they would not be able to do on their own. While the need for more research cannot be denied, that which exists supports the idea that, if given the right supportive environment, cooperatives could help in profound ways to achieve social justice, where it is lacking. Empowering cooperatives to leverage their capacity to contribute to social justice requires a sound policy and legislative framework. The International Year of Cooperatives 2012, declared by the United Nations General Assembly, is one means to raising awareness. By raising awareness of cooperatives – what they are and what they do – the IYC will empower cooperatives to promote their social justice values and encourage governments to create supportive policy and legislative frameworks, where needed. Even with this support, the challenge of effective implementation of the cooperative principles and values cannot be ignored. The sound governance of cooperatives depends upon a well-informed and active membership base, dedicated to cooperative values and principles. To sustain the drive of cooperatives for social justice, a strong membership base, bound by the democratic one-member-one-vote principle, is essential to addressing weak or unethical management, capture by local politicians, or other conflicts of interests which could divert cooperatives from addressing social justice issues.

 SOME IMPORTANT NOTES ON DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

Firstly, some of the directive principles of State policy, which are related to distributive justice, moulded the property relations by influencing the interrelationship doctrine, both directly and indirectly.
Secondly, the interrelationship doctrine is very much influenced by Article 39A of the Constitution which provides for equal justice and free legal aid in the justice delivery system.
Thirdly, the directive principles of State shall strive to secure its citizens right to an adequate means of livelihood and make the effective provision for securing right to work.
Fourthly, the directive principle that ';tender age of children are not abused';, and that ';children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in a conditions of freedom and dignity that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation against moral and material abandonment'; [Article 39(f) have provided the spirit of law to the Apex Court.
Fifthly, the directive principle of ';Equal pay for equal work'; and ';participation of workers in management'; were received through right to equality under Article 14 in Part III, in various cases, such as Randhir Singh (AIR 1982 SC 469)and National Textile Workers Union case (AIR 1983 SC 75).
Sixthly, the directive principles relating to uniform civil code has the potentiality of using the interrelationship doctrine for its implementation.
Seventhly, the promotion of educational and economic interest of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe and other weaker section of the society, contemplated under Article 46 provides a guidance for affirmative actions under Article 15(4) and 16(4) and a pointer for resolving tension between formal and substantive equality by laying emphasis on infusing of strength and ability to compete, through eduction and training to weaker sectors (M.R. Balaji vs. State of Mysore – AIR 1963 SC 649).
Finally, the directive principle that the State shall endeavour to foster respect for international law and treaty obligations has a great potentiality of absorbing the international principles relating to guarantee as under of human rights, and thus influence the interrelationship doctrine.

The convictions are reflected:
(i) The impact of directive principles upon the interrelationship doctrine or vice-versa is not only theoretical but also practical and rewarding. Interrelationship doctrine has given impetus to, and got animated by the process of reading the directive principles into Part III of the Constitution.
(ii) It is true to say that the interrelationship doctrine has its roots in the very text of the constitution. This can be seen when the objects set in the Preamble, followed by Juxtaposing of right to equality with classification, the flexibility imbibed in fundamental rights, the spirit of law (operation of whole Part-III of the Constitution visa-vis the impugned law) rejection of compartmentalised treatment of fundamental rights and finally, the distinction between citizens and non-citizens with regard to availability of fundamental rights and the possibility of invoking a fundamental right to avail a suspended fundamental right during emergency are taken into account with a conscious approach of unity in diversity.
Former Chief Justice of India Shri M.N. Venkatachelaiah, said that professor Bhat examines the relationship of fundamental rights inter se and the jurisprudential and constitutional foundations of that interrelationship. The interrelationship is also a necessary implication of constitutionalism and Rule of Law. It was viewed that professor Bhat, in his elegant analysis, indicates the ';parallel streams'; and ‘cross-currents’ of fundamental rights and how these rights inform and enrich each other. This discourse has its familiar ring in the International Human Rights Regime, and the principles of their universality, indivibility and interdependence Fundamental Rights and DPSP.
When the tussle for primacy between fundamental rights and DPSP came up before the Supreme Court in the case of State of Madras v. Champakam Dorairajan (1951) SCR 525 first, the court said, “The directive principles have to conform to and run subsidiary to the chapter on fundamental rights.” Later, in the Fundamental Rights Case (referred to above), the majority opinions reflected the view that what is fundamental in the governance of the country cannot be less significant than what is significant in the life of the individual. Another judge constituting the majority in that case said: “In building up a just social order it is sometimes imperative that the fundamental rights should be subordinated to directive principles.” This view, that the fundamental rights and DPSP are complementary, “neither part being superior to the other,” has held the field since ( V.R.Krishna Iyer,J. in State of Kerala v. N. M.. Thomas (1976) 2 SCC 310 at para. 134, p. 367).
The DPSP have, through important constitutional amendments, become the benchmark to insulate legislation enacted to achieve social objectives, as enumerated in some of the DPSP, from attacks of invalidation by courts. This way, legislation for achieving agrarian reforms, and specifically for achieving the objectives of articles 39(b) and (c) of the Constitution, has been immunized from challenge as to its violation of the right to equality (art. 14) and freedoms of speech, expression, etc. (art. 19). However, even here the court has retained its power of judicial review to examine if, in fact, the legislation is intended to achieve the objective of articles 39(b) and (c), and where the legislation is an amendment to the Constitution, whether it violates the basic structure of the constitution. Likewise, courts have used DPSP to uphold the constitutional validity of statutes that apparently impose restrictions on the fundamental rights under article 19 (freedoms of speech, expression, association, residence, travel and to carry on a business, trade or profession), as long as they are stated to achieve the objective of the DPSP.
The DPSP are seen as aids to interpret the Constitution, and more specifically to provide the basis, scope and extent of the content of a fundamental right.
To quote again from the Fundamental Rights case:
Fundamental rights have themselves no fixed content; most of them are empty vessels into which each generation must pour its content in the light of its experience. Restrictions, abridgement, curtailment and even abrogation of these rights in circumstances not visualised by the constitution makers might become necessary; their claim to supremacy or priority is liable to be overborne at particular stages in the history ofthe nation by the moral claims embodied in Part IV ( Chandra Bhavan v. State of Mysore (1970) 2 SCR, note 1, SCC para. 1714, p. 881).
The Maneka Gandhi Case and Thereafter Simultaneously, the judiciary took upon itself the task of infusing into the constitutional provisions the spirit of social justice. This it did in a series of cases of which Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978) 1 SCC 248 was a landmark. The case involved the refusal by the government to grant a passport to the petitioner, which thus restrained her liberty to travel. In answering the question whether this denial could be sustained without a predecisional hearing, the court proceeded to explain the scope and content of the right to life and liberty. In a departure from the earlier view, A.K.Gopalan v. State of Madras 1950 SCR 88 the court asserted the doctrine of substantive due process as integral to the chapter on fundamental rights and emanating from a collective understanding of the scheme underlying articles 14 (the right to equality), 19 (the freedoms) and 21 (the right to life). The power the court has to strike down legislation was thus broadened to include critical examination of the substantive due process element in statutes. Once the court took a broader view of the scope and content of the fundamental right to life and liberty, there was no looking back. Article 21 was interpreted to include a bundle of other incidental and integral rights, many of them in the nature of ESC rights. In Francis Coralie v. union territory of India(AIR 1978 SC 597) the court declared:
“The right to life includes the right to live with human dignity and all that goes with it, namely, the bare necessaries of life such as adequate nutrition, clothing and shelter and facilities for reading, writing and expressing oneself in diverse forms, freely moving about and mixing and comingling with fellow human beings. The magnitude and components of this right would depend upon the extent of economic development of the country, but it must, in any view of the matter, include the bare necessities of life and also the right to carry on such functions and activities as constitute the bare minimum expression of the human self.”
The combined effect of the expanded interpretation of the right to life and the use of PIL as a tool led the court into areas where there was a crying need for social justice. These were areas where there was a direct interaction between law and poverty, as in the case of bonded labor and child labor, and crime and poverty, as in the case of under trials in jails. In reading several of these concomitant rights of dignity, living conditions, health into the ambit of the right to life, the court overcame the difficulty of justiciability of these as economic and social rights, which were hitherto, in their manifestation as DPSP, considered nonenforceable. A brief look at how some of these ESC rights were dealt with by the court in four specific contexts will help understand the development of the law in this area.

SUPREME COURT IN 1973 IN KESAVANANDA BHARATI VS. STATE OF KERALA

As to what are these basic features, the debate still continues. The Supreme Court has also held that the scope of certain fundamental rights could be adjudged by reading into them or reading them not only in the light of the Directive Principles of State Policy but also international covenants or conventions which were in harmony with the Fundamental Rights.
The Fundamental Rights — embodied in Part III of the constitution — guarantee civil liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace as citizens of India. The six fundamental rights are right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights and right to constitutional remedies. These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, incorporated in the fundamental law of the land and are enforceable in a court of law. Violations of these rights result in punishments as prescribed in the Indian Penal Code, subject to discretion of the judiciary. These rights are neither absolute nor immune from constitutional amendments. They have been aimed at overturning the inequalities of pre-independence social practices. Specifically, they resulted in abolishment of untouchability and prohibit discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. They forbid human trafficking and unfree labour. They protect cultural and educational rights of ethnic and religious minorities by allowing them to preserve their languages and administer their own educational institutions.

All people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have the right to approach the High Courts or the Supreme Court for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. It is not necessary that the aggrieved party has to be the one to do so. In public interest, anyone can initiate litigation in the court on their behalf. This is known as "Public interest litigation". High Court and Supreme Court judges can also act on their own on the basis of media reports. Fundamental Rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary State actions, but some rights are enforceable against private individuals too. For instance, the constitution abolishes untouchability and prohibits begar. These provisions act as a check both on State action and actions of private individuals. Fundamental Rights are not absolute and are subject to reasonable restrictions as necessary for the protection of national interest.
In the Kesavananda Bharati vs. state of Kerala case, the Supreme Court ruled that all provisions of the constitution, including Fundamental Rights can be amended. However, the Parliament cannot alter the basic structure of the constitution like secularism, democracy, federalism, separation of powers. Often called the "Basic structure doctrine", this decision is widely regarded as an important part of Indian history.
In the 1978 Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India case, the Supreme Court extended the doctrine's importance as superior to any parliamentary legislation. According to the verdict, no act of parliament can be considered a law if it violated the basic structure of the constitution. This landmark guarantee of Fundamental Rights was regarded as a unique example of judicial independence in preserving the sanctity of Fundamental Rights. The Fundamental Rights can only be altered by a constitutional amendment, hence their inclusion is a check not only on the executive branch, but also on the Parliament and state legislatures. The imposition of a state of emergency may lead to a temporary suspension of the rights conferred by Article 19 (including freedoms of speech, assembly and movement, etc.) to preserve national security and public order. The President can, by order, suspend the right to constitutional remedies as well.

Theory of basic structure: a limitation on amending power

The validity of constitution (24th amendment) Act 1971, was challenged in keshvananda bharti vs. state of kerala (AIR 1973 SC 1461). This 13 judge bench decided that 24th amendment is valid and the power to amend the constitution is found in Art. 368 itself. Further the court recognized that there is a distinction between ordinary law and constitutional law. This could impliedly mean that Art.368 confers power to even abridge a fundamental right and to this extent, Golaknath case was overruled. But 7 of judges held that power of amendment under article 368 is subject to certain implied and inherent limitations and that in the exercise of amending the basic structure or frame-work of the constitution. So the majority was of the opinion that the amending power under article 368 is subject to the qualification that this amending power cannot be exercised to alter the basic structure of the framework of the constitution. Such as (1) Supremacy of the constitution. (2) Republican and democratic form of govt. (3) Secular character of constitution. (4) Separation of power. (5) Federal character of constitution


In Indira Gandhi vs. Raj Narain (AIR 1975 SC 2299), the sc referred to keshava nanda bharti case and accepted the doctrine of basic structure of frame work of constitution. The validity of thirty ninth amendment (1975) of the constitution was in question. This amendment excluded judicial review of election and law relating to elections. This amendment was held to be invalid by the SC.as it altered a basic feature of the constitution; the judicial review in election disputes.

To neutralise the affect of doctrine of the basic structure, the Govt. enacted the constitution (42ND Amendment) Act.1979 and added clauses (4) and (5) to art. 368 which provided for exclusion of judicial review of amendments of the constitution made before or after the 42nd Amendment. It also declared that there shall be no limitation on the amending power of the parliament under article 368. The court held that clause (4) and (5) of art. 368 are unconstitutional as it affects the basic structure of the constitution i.e. judicial review. However, there was difference of opinion on validity of amended article 31-C which gave primacy to all Directive principles over the fundamental rights. Although the minority declared void the amended article 31-C, justice Bhagwati (minority judgment) upheld it by giving a restrictive interpretation in terms of doctrine of basic structure.


In Minerva mills vs. union of India (air 1980 sc 1789) The SC by 4 to 1 majority struck down clauses (4) and (5) of article 368 inserted by the 42nd amendment as these clauses destroyed the essential features of the basic structure of the constitution. And held that the following are basic structure of the constitution:

1. limited power of parliament to amend the constitution;
2. harmony and balance between fundamental rights and directive principles;
3. fundamental rights in certain cases;
4. power of judicial review in certain cases;

Independence of judiciary is part of the basic structure.
In Woman Rao vs. Union of India (AIR 1881 SC 271) The supreme court held that all amendment to the constitution which were made before April 24th, 1973(i.e.. the date on which the judgment of Keshvananda Bharti was delivered )including those by which the ninth schedule to the constitution was amended from time to time were valid and constitutional.
In S.P. Sampat kumar vs. union of India (AIR 1987 SC 271), the Supreme Court upheld the validity of art. 323-A and the Act as the necessary changes suggested by the court were incorporated in the Administrative Tribunal Act.
In a landmark judgment in L.Chandra kumar vs. union of India (AIR 1997 SC 1125) a seven-member constitutional bench of the supreme court has unanimously while reconsidering the SAMPATH KUMAR'S CASE, has struck down clause 2(d) of articles 323A and clause 3(d) pf art. 323B which provided for the exclusion of the jurisdiction of the high courts under articles 226 and 227 and the Supreme Court under article 32 of the constitution as unconstitutional and invalid as they damage the power of judicial review which is the basic structure of the constitution.

Necessity of amending provision in the Constitution

It is made with a view to overcome the difficulties which may be encountered in the future in the working of the constitution.
The nature of amending "amending process" envisaged by the framers of our constitution can best be understood by referring the following observation of the late prime minister pt. Nehru, "while we want this constitution be as solid and permanent as we can make it, there is no permanence in the constitution. There should be certain flexibility. If you make anything rigid and permanent you stop the nation's growth, of a living vital, organic people…………. In any event, we could not make this constitution so rigid that it cannot be adopted to changing conditions. When the world is in a period of transition what we may do today may not be wholly applicable tomorrow" practically every constitution has some formal provisions for amendment of the constitution. In a rigid constitution amendment is more elaborate and difficult then enactment of ordinary legislation. In a flexible constitution, amendment can be effected rather easily, as easily as enacting an ordinary law.

The former procedure to amend some foreign federal constitutions as follows:

1. U.S.A.: In U.S.A., amendment of the constitution may be proposed only by congress, with the approval of 2/3 of majority of both houses (congress and senate), or a convention summoned on an application from 2/3 of the members of both houses. The proposed amendments must be ratified by at least ¾ of the total number of the state legislatures or by conventions in ¾ of the total numbers of the states.
   
   
2. SWITZERLAND: In Switzerland, no alteration of the constitution can be effected without resorting to a referendum.
   
   
3. AUSTRALIA: In Australia, the constitution can be altered only by an Act passed by an absolute majority in both houses, or in case one house refuses to pass it, by an Act passed by an absolute majority in either house, for the second time, after an interval of 3 months. But in either house the Act must be subjected to a referendum in each state. If in a majority of the states, a majority of the voters approve the amendment, it shall be presented to the governor general for the Royal assent. In INDIA the framers of the constitution devoted a separate chapter (20th ) towards the process and provisions of amendment of the provision of the constitution fall under 3 categories:
   (a) Those provisions of the constitution which can be effected by a simple majority required for the passing of an ordinary law:-the amendment contemplated in Articles 4,169,239(A) fall within this category. These articles are specially excluded from the area of Art. 368.
   
   (b) Those provision of the constitution that can be effected by a special majority as laid down in Art. 368: under this category the amendments are effected by a majority of total membership of either of each house of parliament as well as by a majority of not less than 2/3 of the members of that house present and voting.
   
   (c) Those provision of the constitution which require in addition to the special majority as described in 368(2), ratification by a resolution passed by not less than one half of the state legislature, before the bill is presented to president for his assent:-some of these provisions in which amendment can be made by aforesaid procedures are (1) the election and manner of election of the president(art. 54& 55), (2) extent of executive power of the state(art. 73), (3) provision dealing with high court for union territories (art. 241), (4) seventh schedule of the constitution. (5) Art. 368 itself.

The power to amend the constitution conferred on parliament includes the power to amend art. 1 and logically would include the power to cede national territory in favour of a foreign state. (In re berubari union)

RAS PRE EXAM POL.SCIENCE SOLVED PAPER 2007

RAS Pre 2007 Paper Solved - Political Science

RAS Pre Question Paper Solved - Political Science for R.A.S./R.T.S. (Pre.) Examination, 20071. When a Governor reserves a bill passed by the State Legislature ?
(A) He may be impeached
(B) He sends it to the President
(C) He may help the bill pending indefinitely
(D) He may give assent to the bill later

2. Match the following features of Indian Constitution and their sources—
List-I
(a) Bill of Right and Judicial Review.
(b) Parliamentary System of Democracy.
(c) Directive Principles.
(d) Residuary Powers with Centre.
List-II
1. England
2. Ireland
3. U.S.A.
4. Canada
Codes :
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(A) 4 1 2 3
(B) 1 2 3 4
(C) 3 4 2 1
(D) 3 1 2 4

3. A uniform civil code has been recommended in the Directive Principles to ensure—
(A) Economic equality
(B) National security
(C) National integration
(D) Support for weaker sections of society

4. Indian Institute of Public Administration is situated at—
(A) Delhi
(B) Madras
(C) Calcutta
(D) Bombay

5. Which of the following Newspaper is not associated with Gandhiji ?
(A) The Statesman
(B) Harijan
(C) Young India
(D) Indian Opinion

6. The Bureaucratic model set-up in India by the British Government are based on the theory given by—
(A) Weber
(B) Macaulay
(C) Michels
(D) Macpherson

7. Which Article of Indian Constitution guarantees constitutional protection to our civil servants ?
(A) 311
(B) 312
(C) 313
(D) 315

8. Which Constitutional Amendment is related to Panchayati Raj ?
(A) 52nd
(B) 62nd
(C) 72nd
(D) 73rd

9. In which year, the National Commission for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe was created ?
(A) 1989
(B) 1990
(C) 1991
(D) 1996

10. Who was the author of ‘Arthasastra’ ?
(A) Kautilya
(B) Adam Smith
(C) Patanjali
(D) Malthus

11. Who burnt Hobbs’ book ‘Leviathan’ ?
(A) Clarenden
(B) Palmastene
(C) Duguit
(D) Crawe

12. In India the power of Judicial review is enjoyed by the—
(A) High Court only
(B) Supreme Court only
(C) Supreme Court and High Court only
(D) Parliament

13. What are the essential elements of the State ?
(A) Population, Territory, Constitution, Power
(B) Population, Territory, Government, Sovereignty
(C) Population, Territory, Political Party, Sovereignty
(D) Population, Power, Authority, Sovereignty

14. Which of the following Theories of Origin of State is more appropriate and reliable as it is based on scientific base ?
(A) Divine Origin of State
(B) Force Theory
(C) Evolutionary Theory
(D) Social Contract Theory

15. Marxism believes that the State is—
(A) social welfare organization
(B) a necessary evil
(C) an instrument of exploitation
(D) an essentially good

16. In the Indian Constitution the word secularism means—
(A) State has a religion of its own
(B) State has nothing to do with religion
(C) State has irreligious
(D) State tolerates religion without professing any particular religion

17. Who presides over the Joint Session of the two Houses of the Parliament ?
(A) President of India
(B) Speaker of Lok-Sabha
(C) Prime Minister
(D) Leader of Ruling Party

18. The minimum age for becoming President of India is—
(A) 25 years
(B) 21 years
(C) 35 years
(D) 18 years

19. Who was the Chairman of the “Drafting Committee in the Constituent Assembly” ?
(A) Dr. Rajendra Prasad
(B) Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
(C) J. L. Nehru
(D) B. N. Rao

20. Through which Amendment was the word ‘Socialism’ added to the Constitution ?
(A) 42nd Amendment
(B) 43rd Amendment
(C) 44th Amendment
(D) 45th Amendment

21. Which of the following technique is not adopted by the Pressure Groups ?
(A) Gherao
(B) Lobbying
(C) Propaganda
(D) Directly Contesting Election

22. The United Nations is financed by—
(A) The contribution from the Member-States
(B) Switzerland
(C) Russia
(D) America

23. Article 21 deals with which Fundamental Right ?
(A) Right to Property
(B) Right to Freedom
(C) Right to Life and Personal Liberty
(D) Right to Freedom of Religion

24. Which one of the following welfare ideals is not found in the list of Directive Principles ?
(A) Compulsory Primary Education
(B) Equal Pay for equal work
(C) Promoting Health Services
(D) Compulsory Employment

25. The mediator in Aceh Peace Accord in 2005 was—
(A) Finland
(B) Philippines
(C) Laos
(D) Singapore

26. 13th SAARC Summit was organized in—
(A) Bangladesh
(B) India
(C) Pakistan
(D) Nepal

27. The Corruption Treaty of U.N.O. is effected from—
(A) October 2005
(B) November 2005
(C) December 2005
(D) January 2005

28. Which Amendment was passed for Private Reservation Bill on December 2005 ?
(A) 102
(B) 103
(C) 104
(D) 105

29. The 6th Schedule of Constitution is not applied on the State—
(A) Assam
(B) Meghalaya
(C) Tripura
(D) Manipur

30. The number of Judges in International Court of Justice are—
(A) 15
(B) 10
(C) 11
(D) 14

31. Presently how many members are in U.N.O. ?
(A) 189
(B) 191
(C) 185
(D) 193

32. Presently how many members are in ‘NATO’ ?
(A) 26
(B) 15
(C) 18
(D) 12

33. Which Five Year Plan’s main aim was ‘Removal of Poverty’ ?
(A) 4th Five Year Plan
(B) 5th Five Year Plan
(C) 6th Five Year Plan
(D) 7th Five Year Plan

34. ‘Politics is struggle for power’ is said by—
(A) Marganthau
(B) Kwisy Right
(C) Sprout
(D) Thomson

35. In India the work of Budget forming is performed by—
(A) Planning Commission
(B) Public Service Committee
(C) Finance Minister
(D) Finance Commission

36. Which one of the following Commissions was constituted to examine the Centre-State relations ?
(A) Sarkaria Commission
(B) Shah Commission
(C) Bachhavat Commission
(D) Jain Commission

37. The first State where the Panchayati Raj System was implemented ?
(A) Madhya Pradesh
(B) Andhra Pradesh
(C) Rajasthan
(D) Uttar Pradesh

38. Who was U.N. Secretary-General in 2006 ?
(A) Trygve Lie
(B) Kofi Annan
(C) V. Thant
(D) Javier Perez

39. Why did Gandhiji abruptly stop the Non-cooperation Movement of 1922 ?
(A) For the harsh attitude of British
(B) Because of pact between Congress and British
(C) Because of violence broke at Chauri-Chaura
(D) Because of unanimous decision of Congress

40. Khilafat Movement subsided because of—
(A) The concession given to the Muslim by the British
(B) The accession of Kamal Pasha to the throne of Turkey
(C) The understanding reached between the Congress and the Muslim League
(D) None of the above

41. The slogan ‘Swaraj is my Birth Right’ was given by—
(A) Mahatma Gandhi
(B) Lala Lajpat Rai
(C) Lokmanya Tilak
(D) Bipin Chandra Pal

42. The concept of ‘Rule of Law’ was given by—
(A) A.V. Dicey
(B) Laski
(C) Austin
(D) Maciver

43. Which one of the following is not a fundamental Right ?
(A) Right of Life
(B) Right to Liberty
(C) Right to Property
(D) Right to Freedom of Expression

44. The name of revolutionary leader, who killed General O’Dyer, responsible for Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy was—
(A) Madan Lal Dhingra
(B) Chandra Shekhar Azad
(C) Bhagat Singh
(D) Udham Singh

45. The centre-point of International Relations is—
(A) Struggle
(B) Power
(C) National Interest
(D) None of the above

46. Indian system is—
(A) Federal
(B) Quasi-federal
(C) Unitary
(D) Federal with unitary bias

47. India began NAM in—
(A) 1961
(B) 1954
(C) 1973
(D) 1978

48. Sino-Indian War occurred in—
(A) 1961
(B) 1962
(C) 1948
(D) 1947

49. The major irritant in Indo-Pak relations is—
(A) Kashmir Issue
(B) Sir Creek Line
(C) Division of River Water
(D) Issue of Disarmament

50. The Indo-US Nuclear Agreement is related to—
(A) Civil Nuclear Cooperation
(B) Military and Civil Nuclear Cooperation
(C) Capping of Indian Nuclear Programme
(D) None of the above

51. ‘Panchayat Raj’ Amendment Act is known as—
(A) 73rd Amendment
(B) 74th Amendment
(C) 75th Amendment
(D) 76th Amendment

52. Who is known as a ‘Prophet of empty liberty’ ?
(A) Bentham
(B) Mill
(C) Laski
(D) Maciver

53. Which is not a key feature of State ?
(A) State is sovereign
(B) The State is an exercise in legislation
(C) The State is an instrument of domination
(D) The State is not a territorial association

54. “The State is both the Child and Parent of Law.” Whose statement is this ?
(A) Maciver
(B) Laski
(C) Coker
(D) Holland

55. Who made the statement “State is prior to individual” ?
(A) Plato
(B) Aristotle
(C) Cicero
(D) Augustine

56. Who among the following is the first modern Thinker ?
(A) Plato
(B) Aristotle
(C) Acquinas
(D) Machiavelli

57. The most powerful advocate of Absolute Sovereignty was—
(A) Hobbes
(B) Rousseau
(C) Bentham
(D) Mill

58. Who said Politics as the “authoritative allocation of values” ?
(A) Easton
(B) Samuel Johnson
(C) Machiavelli
(D) Lord Acton

59. Who said “Politics is both Science and Art” ?
(A) Laswell
(B) Kaplan
(C) Michel Curtis
(D) Tritschke

60. Who said “If liberty and law do not quarrel, liberty may quarrel with itself” ?
(A) Laski
(B) Maciver
(C) Barker
(D) Maxey

61. In the view of Green, the three obstacles to freedom are—
(A) Religion, Ignorance and Poverty
(B) Family, Government and Religion
(C) Ignorance, Drunkenness and Poverty
(D) None of these

62. Who among the following regarded as Medieaval Aristotle ?
(A) St. Augustine
(B) St. Thomas Acquinas
(C) Marsiglio of Paduc
(D) John Salisbury

63. Which among the following is not a natural right according to Locke ?
(A) Life
(B) Liberty
(C) Property
(D) Equality

64. Who said that imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism ?
(A) Lenin
(B) Stalin
(C) Mao
(D) Marx

65. The term Socialism was first used by—
(A) Marx
(B) Robert Owen
(C) Lenin
(D) Mao

66. Who wrote the book “Local and Regional Government” ?
(A) G.D.H. Cole
(B) Carl Friedrich
(C) Maciver
(D) Gandhi

67. Greek Philosopher gave supreme importance to—
(A) Individual
(B) State
(C) Community
(D) King

68. An Estimate Committee is—
(A) Permanent
(B) Temporary
(C) Both
(D) None of these

69. Who is considered as the Founder of Welfare State on the moral basis ?
(A) Kant
(B) Bosanquet
(C) Green
(D) Rousseau

70. Which Political Scientist gave a new dimension to the concept of Justice, Liberalism and Equality ?
(A) John Rawls
(B) Arthur Bentley
(C) Karl Marx
(D) Hans Morgenthau

71. Who wrote Parliament ?
(A) Jennings
(B) Strong
(C) Jenks
(D) Corry

72. Who said that “State is Particular portion of mankind viewed as an organised” ?
(A) Bluntschelli
(B) Hegel
(C) Burgess
(D) Leacock

73. The most clear exposition of the ‘rule of law’ was provided by—
(A) George Washington
(B) Jean Bodin
(C) Ivar Jennings
(D) A. V. Dicey

74. Who said Sovereignty was the fullness of State ?
(A) The Greeks
(B) The English
(C) The Romans
(D) The Indians

75. The chief proponent of the Theory of Natural Right are—
(A) John Locke and Thomas Paine
(B) Lasswell and Kaplan
(C) Hegel and Kant
(D) Durkheim and Weber

76. Who is the author of ‘Two Concept of Liberty’ ?
(A) Mill
(B) Isciah Berlin
(C) Laski
(D) Macpherson

77. “Pain and Pressure and the two sovereign matter”, is said by—
(A) Hobbes
(B) Hegel
(C) Machiavelli
(D) Bentham

78. Who defined democracy as “a Government in which everyone has a share” ?
(A) Bryce
(B) Seeley
(C) Laski
(D) Lincoln

79. Who wrote the book “Social Principles and the Democratic State” ?
(A) Benn and Peters
(B) C.E.M. Joad
(C) Barker
(D) Hocking

80. Who propagated “The greatest happiness to the greatest number” ?
(A) Marxists
(B) Utilitarians
(C) Liberals
(D) Pluralists

81. According to Kautilya, ‘Trivarg’ includes
(A) Arth-Kama-Dharma
(B) Arth-Kama-Moksha
(C) Dharma-Artha-Moksha
(D) Arth-Dharma-Moksha

82. Who stated that pressure group have acquired the name of the ‘Third House’ ?
(A) Laski
(B) Finer
(C) Bryce
(D) Dicey

83. Which Article of the Constitution defines the duties of Chief Minister ?
(A) Article 163
(B) Article 164
(C) Article 166
(D) Article 167

84. Regarding the re-election of the Vice-President our—
(A) Constitution prescribes reelection only once
(B) Constitution places a clear ban
(C) Constitution is absolutely silent
(D) Constitution prescribes reelection for a maximum period of two terms

85. The philosophical basis of negative liberalism is—
(A) Individualism
(B) Capitalism
(C) Communism
(D) None of the above

86. Which one of the following are the devices of democracy which are commonly practised in modern times ?
1. Widening of the Electorate.
2. Frequent Election.
3. Local Self Government.
4. Responsibility of the Government to the majority party.
Select correct answers from the following—
(A) 1 and 2
(B) 2 and 3
(C) 1, 2 and 3
(D) 1, 2, 3 and 4

87. Who said “A strong middle-class is the backbone of democracy” ?
(A) Aristotle
(B) Garner
(C) Plato
(D) H. G. Wells

88. Indian Administration is influenced by which of the following factors ?
(A) Federalism
(B) Parliamentary Democracy
(C) Planning
(D) All of the above

89. Treaty of Versailles is related to—
(A) Korean Crisis
(B) First World War
(C) Afghanistan Crisis
(D) Second World War

90. Who heads the Meeting of Committee of Secretaries ?
(A) Prime Minister
(B) Cabinet Secretary
(C) Home Secretary
(D) Defence Secretary

91. NATO was set up in the year—
(A) 1948
(B) 1949
(C) 1951
(D) 1952

92. At which place Churchill give his speech regarding Cold War ?
(A) London
(B) Fulton
(C) Paris
(D) Berlin

93. Who observed that universal adult franchise is not really universal ?
(A) G. D. H. Cole
(B) G. B. Shaw
(C) G. W. F. Hegel
(D) Gilchrist

94. Input-ouput model is chiefly attributed to—
(A) Peter Merkl
(B) Roburt Dahl
(C) David Easton
(D) David Apter

95. In which part of the Constitution proclaims India to be a welfare State ?
(A) Part III
(B) Part IV
(C) Part IX
(D) Part VI

96. Which of the following included in the State list in the Constitution of India ?
1. Police
2. Law and order
3. Prisons
4. Criminal Procedure Code
Choose correct answers from the code given below—
(A) 1, 2 and 3
(B) 1, 2 and 4
(C) 1, 3 and 4
(D) 2, 3 and 4

97. Which of the following are not matched properly ?
(A) Mahatma Gandhi–Non-cooperation Movement
(B) Vinoba Bhave–Bhoodan
(C) M. N. Roy–Partyless Democracy
(D) J. L. Nehru–Democratic Socialism

98. National Development Council was established in—
(A) August 1951
(B) August 1947
(C) August 1952
(D) August 1950

99. Which U.S. Resolution proposed the ‘STAR-WARS’ programme ?
(A) Nixon
(B) Kennedy
(C) Reagan
(D) Bush

100. The Fundamental Duties of Indian citizens are contained in—
(A) Part I of the Constitution
(B) Part III of the Constitution
(C) Part IV of the Constitution
(D) None of the above

Answers with Hints

1. (B) According to Article 200 of the Constitution, the Governor may reserve any bill passed by state legislature for the consideration of the President.
2. (D)
3. (C) Uniform civil code means common family and marriage laws for all classes of citizens including minorities. At present, the uniform civil code is not applicable in case of Muslims. The implementation of the uniform civil code for all sections of people will promote national integration.
4. (A) 5. (A) 6. (B)
7. (A) As per the provisions of Article 311 of the Constitution, no member of state or Union Civil Service shall be removed from his post or reduced in rank by an authority below than the appointing authority and without
conducting a proper inquiry in which such member is given opportunity to represent himself.
8. (D) The 73rd Constitution Amendment bill was passed by Lok Sabha on December 22, 1992 and by Rajya Sabha on December 23, 1992. This Amendment Act became effective on April 24, 1993.
9. (B) Under Article 338 of the Constitution, the National Commission of SC/ST was established vide 65th Constitution Amendment Act, 1990.
10. (A) 11. (A) 12. (B) 13. (B) 14. (C)
15. (C) According to Karl Marx, the State is a class institution, which becomes a tool in the hands of capitalists for the exploitation of proletariat or working class.
16. (D) 17. (B) 18. (C) 19. (B)
20. (A) The three words–‘socialist’, ‘secular’ and ‘integrity’ were added in the preamble of the Constitution by the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976.
21. (D) The basic difference between the pressure groups and political parties is that the pressure groups do not contest elections to capture political power. Pressure groups put pressure on the government in order to realize their objectives.
22. (A) 23. (C) 24. (D) 25. (A)
26. (A) The 13th SAARC Summit was held on November 12 and 13, 2005 at Dhaka, Bangladesh.
27. (C) 28. (C)
29. (D) The 6th Schedule of the Constitution makes provision for the administration of Tribal Areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
30. (A)
31. (B) At present, there are 192 members in the United Nations.
32. (A) 33. (B) 34. (A) 35. (C)
36. (A) The Sarkaria Commission, named after justice Ranjit Singh Sarkaria, was set up in 1983 to examine the Centre-State relations. The Commission was setup by the Union Government and submitted its report in 1988.
37. (C) The Panchayati Raj System was launched on October 2, 1959 at Nagore (Rajasthan) by the Prime Minister, Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru.
38. (B) 39. (C) 40. (B) 41. (C) 42. (A)
43. (C) The Right to property was removed from the list of Fundamental Rights by the 44th Constitution Amendment Act, 1978 and it was made as a legal right.
44. (D) 45. (C) 46. (D)
47. (A) The First Non-Aligned Summit was held in 1961 at Belgrade, the capital of Yogoslavia, in which 25 member countries participated.
48. (B) 49. (A) 50. (A) 51. (A)
52. (B) Barker has termed Mill as the prophet of empty liberty.
53. (D) Definite territory is the essential element of State.
54. (A) 55. (B) 56. (D) 57. (A) 58. (A)
59. (C) 60. (D) 61. (C) 62. (B) 63. (D)
64. (A) 65. (B) 66. (A)
67. (C) The Greek Philosophers did not make distinction between the state and society. For them the State is the community itself.
68. (A) 69. (C) 70. (A) 71. (A) 72. (C)
73. (D) 74. (D) 75. (A) 76. (B) 77. (D)
78. (B) 79. (A)
80. (B) The doctrine of utilitarianism of was propounded by J. Bentham.
81. (A)
82. (B) Due to important role of pressure groups in the USA politics, they are termed as the third Chamber of Congress. (the US Legislature)
83. (D) According to Article 167, it is the duty of Chief Minister to inform the Governor about the decisions of the Cabinet and the legislature proposals of the Government.
84. (C) 85. (A)
86. (C) The Government is equally responsible to both majority party and other parties.
87. (D) 88. (D)
89. (B) The treaty of Versailles was signed in 1919 after the end of First World War (1914-1918). The treaty also provided for the establishment of league of Nations.
90. (B) 91. (B)
92. (B) The speech given by Mr. Churchill at Fulton on March 5, 1946 is termed as the beginning of cold war in world politics.
93. (A) 94. (C)
95. (B) The part IV of the Constitution provides for the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) the idea of Welfare State is inherent in these Directive Principles.
96. (A) The criminal procedure code finds mention in the concurrent list given in the 7th schedule of the Constitution.
97. (C) The idea of party-less democracy was given by Jai Prakash Narayan. The main idea of M. N. Roy is the idea of New-Humanism.
98. (C) 99. (C)
100. (C) The Fundamental Duties of the citizens are mentioned in part IV-A of the Constitution. These duties w